Furthermore, there could be subclinical infections within the flock, and other immunosuppressive diseases or infections with field strains could occur shortly before or after the vaccination, and/or there could be infection with mutant strains. 30. 118. doi: 10.1080/09712119.2015.1013964, 88. doi: 10.1093/ps/86.2.232, 33. In addition, health prospects such as enteric disorders due to clostridial infections and dysbacteriosis increased (14). doi: 10.1177/1040638712463692. It is expected that COVID-19 lockdowns will reduce animal welfare due to a shortage of workers for daily animal care and farming, rearing restrictions under free-range and backyard husbandry, and limited access to feeds and disease treatments. Additionally, incompatibilities with other control and therapy treatments such as live bacterial vaccines, using antibiotics, and/or applying live coccidiosis vaccines while simultaneously feeding animals with coccidiostat-contaminated feeds (29, 138). The most recent example is avian influenza, where early diagnosis of the source and route of virus spread helped to control the disease and develop an effective vaccine for this zoonotic disease (44, 53). Attia YA, Al-Harthi MA. Broiler tolerance to heat stress at various dietary protein/energy levels. Recent evidence has highlighted that a decrease in dietary crude protein diets could be compensated with limited amino acid supplementation at minimum crude protein level while enhancing the broilers' capacity to cope with infection (65, 70, 73). Adv Anim Vet Sci. (36)] have shown that pigs and chickens are not susceptible to intranasal infection by SARS-CoV-2. Ital J Anim Sci. In: Swayne DE, Boulianne M, Logue CM, McDougald L, Nair V, Suarez DL, editors. doi: 10.5713/ajas.19.0146. 4. An important issue that might affect poultry immunity, health, and performance is dietary constituents. (2013) 7:695700. Notes; All protein sources were added to starter feed at 5% for 0-7 days post-hatching. Naguiba MM, El-Kady MF, Lschow D, Hassan KE, Arafa AS, El-Zanaty A, et al. doi: 10.5455/javar.2020.g412. Nevertheless, further research is required. Curr Opin Biotechnol. Washington, DC: National Academy Press (1994). doi: 10.1093/ps/79.7.994, 34. J Anim Phys Anim Nut. Vet. Antibiotic tolerance in humans and animals (especially bacteria) is now a common topic, and it is expected to be a continuous public health hazard (12, 13). Food Chem. Furthermore, vaccines developed for IBD and IBV, and early for Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and coccidiosis, have helped to save billions of dollars to the industry, as well as improve industry safety and protect it from disease outbreaks (54, 55). Various poultry body functions and systemshepatic, renal, respiratory, neurological, and entericare adversely affected by coronaviruses, such as infectious bronchitis. 37. (2019) 9:53343. Control of Salmonella enteritidis infection in male layer chickens by acetic acid and/or prebiotics, probiotics and antibiotics. doi: 10.3382/ps.2009-00220, 131. 2. Saudi Arabia is also among the top countries in poultry meat and egg consumption. In addition, a low protein diet supplemented with essential amino acids was found to be useful tool to maintain performance and immunity of chickens when other nutrients were met (7375). Pros. (2017) 81. doi: 10.1399/eps.2017.171, Keywords: poultry disease, food safety, consumer protection, Disease control, biosecurity, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Citation: Hafez HM and Attia YA (2020) Challenges to the Poultry Industry: Current Perspectives and Strategic Future After the COVID-19 Outbreak. Growing and laying performance of Japanese quail fed diet supplemented with different concentrations of acetic acid. Khan RU, Naz S, Nikousefat Z, Selvaggi M, Laudadio V, Tufarelli V. Effect of ascorbic acid on heat-stressed Poultry. 106. The equipment used depends on the amount of (2010) 16:55562. Consumer confidence, product quality and safety, types of products, and the emergence and re-emergence of diseases will continue to be major challenges to the current situation and the strategic future of the industry. (2010) 141:32631. Most flocks were positive for MRSA that could be allocated to clonal complex (CC) 398. The increased movement could also raise the hazard of introducing infections to specific regions that are free from such diseases (5). Essential fatty acids, principally n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, are essential for human and animal health and immunity. (2005) 61:56982. Attia YA, Al-Harthi MA, Abo El-Maaty H. Calcium and cholecalciferol levels on late phase-laying hens' diets: effects on productive and egg quality traits, blood biochemistry and immune responses. J Adv Vet Anim Res. Eighty-nine isolates were tolerant to three or more antimicrobial types. Milk thistle seeds and rosemary leaves as rabbit growth promoters. In an effort to address these issues, probiotics have gained popularity as feed additives. Konieczka P, Czauderna M, Smulikowska S. The enrichment of chicken meat with omega-3 fatty acids by dietary fish oil or its mixture with rapeseed or flaxseed-effect of feeding duration dietary fish oil, flaxseed, and rapeseed and n-3 enriched broiler meat. By contrast, it produces 17% more eggs than its needs (3). Susceptibility and multidrug resistance patterns of Escherichia coli isolated from cloacal swabs of live broiler chickens in Bangladesh. Recent evidence has revealed that selection for disease resistance is a more successful endeavor compared with the use of vaccines or drug treatments for disease control in poultry (55). Rahman M, Amin R, Mst IRB, Fries R, Husna A, et al. Effect of dietary protein concentrations, amino acids and conjugated linoleic acid supplementations on productive performance and lipid metabolism of broiler chicks. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Br J Nutr. However, these diseases depend on the hygienic conditions, geographic area, season, metrological factors, and production goals (layers vs. broilers, as well as the breed). Disease resistance genes are those that encode antibodies, microRNA, and other materials that assist the host in fighting the damage caused by pathogens. In five flocks, there was MRSA of spa-type t002 that is not connected to CC398. Svetlana M, Lazarevi M, Jokic Z, Jovanovic I, Pesut O, et al. 90. (1999) 27:2438. The Mineral Nutrition of Livestock. Poult Sci. However, this use may increase the threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the negative impact of antibiotics on the environment, such as cross-resistance and carryover influences. Microsc Res Tech. Poult Sci. Al-Khalifa HS, Givens D, Rymer C, Yaqoob P. Effect of n-3 fatty acids on immune function in broiler chickens. (111) revealed that substituting FeSO4 with iron-glycine chelate at the identical dietary Fe concentration cannot enhance the broilers' productive criteria. The two major avian immune system organs are the bursa of Fabricius (associated with B cells) and the thymus (associated with T cells). Fish nutrition has advanced dramatically in recent years with the development of new, balanced commercial diets that promote optimal fish growth and health. However, adaptive immunity is also implicated in allergic responses and for the rejection of transplanted tissue, which may be considered a harmful foreign invader (53). It also enriches the function and proliferation of lymphocytes and macrophages and increases phagocytic activity and decreases oxidative damage under normal and heat stress conditions (129, 130). Poult Sci. In addition, the continuous increase in the costs of feedstuffsand thus feeds and foodsremain prominent issues (2). Richter et al. Vet Microb. It includes five lobules where T cells multiply; these cells are responsible for cellular immunity (136). Turkey isolates stood out with 42 (81%) multi-tolerant isolates. 36. Yausheva E, Miroshnikov S, Sizova E. Intestinal microbiome of broiler chickens after use of nanoparticles and metal salts. Management of multidrug-resistant enterococcal infections. Global collaboration and trade will cause governments throughout the world to synchronize their current legislation linked to the market, control of disease, poultry nutrition, and the drugs and vaccines licensing for veterinary practice, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic. Global poultry farming has aggressively selected for traits that focus on maximum poultry production and improving feed utilization and farming profits. (2009) 41:80718. They improve antioxidants status, vitamin synthesis, and nutrients digestion (88). (2007) 48:52537. Luo J. The health of animals is mediated by immunity and the risk of infection and invading pathogens. Rahman MT, Sobur MA, Islam MS, Toniolo A, Nazmul Hussain Nazir KHM. Enteric diseases of poultry with special attention to Clostridium perfringens. Se fortification can enhance the antioxidant balance of animals and improve product quality and animal performance (119121), but excess Se may hurt the environment (108, 117). (2011) 75:16978. Strong production competition and cost differences from around the world will affect the cost and global movement of poultry and its products. Jackwood MW. doi: 10.1007/s11356-018-1991-5, 108. doi: 10.1016/j.asj.2006.04.001. (2015) 3:36271. The lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic indicate that public knowledge and educational levels are very important tools in public health protections and zoonosis transmission and control. Front Immunol. Sunflower, soybean, rapeseed, and palm oils are rich sources of n-6 fatty acids, while fish and flaxseed oils and certain nuts are a good source of n-3 fatty acidswith different n-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA as well as alpha-linolenic acid (64). 7:516. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00516. Thirty-one (79.5%) were impervious to linezolid. Shi R, Liu D, Sun J, Jia Y, Zhang P. Effect of replacing dietary FeSO4 with equal Fe-levelled iron glycine chelate on broiler chickens. Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL, et al. Gorman S, Buckley AG, Ling KM, Berry LJ, Fear VS, Stick SM, et al. VRE was observed in 15 out of 20 (75%) tested turkey flocks. Front Immunol. A review of the aetiology and possible causative factors of foot pad dermatitis in growing turkeys and broilers. The reducing capacity of these phytochemicals can preserve the minerals in a reduced form during the synthetic process. In the available literature, Salmonella serovars and Campylobacter spp. US Department of Agriculture. It will also take into consideration economic, ethical, social dimensions, and the sustenance of the accomplishment of high environmental security. Animal. Vet Microb. Kiarie EG, Leung H, Akbari Moghaddam Kakhki R, Patterson R, Barta JR. Utility of feed enzymes and yeast derivatives in ameliorating deleterious effects of coccidiosis on intestinal health and function in broiler chickens. Antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolates from small scale and backyard chicken in Kenya. Interactions of 1, 25-dihydroxy VD3 and the immune system. Ann Anim Sci. Br J Nutr. Saif YM, Toro H. Diagnosis of Major Poultry Diseases. Essential micro-minerals such as zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), selenium (Se) and iodine (I), are important as antioxidants and immune and health enhancers, and they are required for red blood cell and thyroid hormone functions (101104). (2003) 4:83542. (2017) 16:27582. Animal. The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents and food-borne outbreaks in 2013. Hidayat C, Sumiati Jayanegara A, Wina E. Effect of zinc on the immune response and production performance of broilers: a meta-analysis. Furthermore, DHA and EPA have a vital role in immunity modulating response (77, 78). Meteorological changes present an additional burden on immune competence and the health status of animals (135). doi: 10.1079/WPS200571. Around the world, multidrug-tolerant bacteria have progressively become a serious risk to animals and, thus, to human health and successful antibacterial treatment. Anim Feed Sci Technol. 12. Avian Dis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (2013). The diagnosis and treatment of poultry diseases are the most common tools to control and prevent disease transmission and spread (44, 45, 52). Table 1. FAO estimates that commercial feed production will need to increase by 70% by 2050 to meet the growing demand for protein. However, nutritional intervention programs may enhance immunity and health status but have a limited impact and cannot replace advantageous clinical effects in intensive care treatment patients (66, 67). (19). The study indicated that 75% of wet maggots should be included in commercial fish feed to ensure adequate utilization by C. gariepinus juveniles (Ipinmoroti et al., 2019). doi: 10.1017/S1751731112002054. Nonetheless, antibiotics can also amplify the occurrence of drug-tolerant bacteria. Zn is the second most abundant microelement after iron. Is the COVID-19 pandemic masking dengue epidemic in Bangladesh? Failure to appropriately vaccinate animals can cause a substantial reduction in poultry breeding, particularly for parental stocks; parental levels should be given considerable attention because they can directly affect maternal antibody production and transfer of passive immunity. The emerging disease should give maximum attention. PROTEIN: This is usually the most expensive feed material, but the one most likely to bring profitable results if properly used. Infectious diseases and health disorders are mostly connected to negative economic impacts. Alagawany et al. Identification of probiotic effector molecules: present state and future perspectives. In Saudi Arabia, the National Transformation Program 2020 of the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, which is a part of the Kingdom 2030 vision, includes the following initiatives to improve animal production and to control the disease: 1. Disadvantages: Concentrated feed is the same as pellet feed, it is difficult to determine A major lesson from the COVID-19 pandemic is that world health is one unit. In addition, Se is a constituent of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase (GPX). Diseases of Poultry. Impacts of reduced-crude protein diets on key parameters in male broiler chickens offered maize-based diets. (2010) 55:50519. Zabetakis I, Lordan R, Norton C, Tsoupras A. COVID-19: the inflammation link and the role of nutrition in potential mitigation. Enhance protections, prevention, and control program in poultry farms. The tolerance to metronidazole, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, and tetracycline was 58 (76.3%), 58 (76.3%), 51 (67.1%), 53 (69.7%), and 42 (55.3%), respectively. Evolution of antibiotic resistance of coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from healthy turkeys in Egypt: first report of linezolid resistance. Attia YA, Al-Khalifa H, Ibrahim MS, Abd Al-Hamid AE, Al-Harthi MA, El-Naggar A. Another study examined isolates gathered from various flocks of free-range turkeys in Germany (25). These endeavors support European decision-makers in implementing decisions and establishing policies to safeguard consumers in the European Union (EU). However, with increasing evidence, scientists have found that DF has enormous impacts on the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) development, digestive physiology, including nutrient digestion, fermentation, and absorption processes (2019) 9:573. doi: 10.3390/ani9080573, 65. (2013) 12:e37. doi: 10.2478/aoas-2013-0001, 78. 6. (2011) 31:17584. The main functions of selenoproteins are control of redox of biochemical function, antioxidant balance systems, thyroid hormone anabolism and catabolism (106), anticancer protection (108), and immune function booster (117, 118). Viral diseases and their threats and emerging diseases and their threat, 3. So far, continuous education and training programs for poultry farmers have been very successful. Nutrients. There is no proof for either horizontal or vertical transmission from one flock to another with regard to a known poultry house contamination. Poult Sci. The impact of fatty acids on immunity is linked to the improved antioxidant balance that affects immune system modulation via humoral and cellular immunity (65). The impact of antibiotics on the gut flora leads to enhanced digestion and absorption, and, thus, the availability of nutrients for production due to an improved gut ecosystem that favors beneficial microorganisms. WebWater: Energy Requirements and Feed Intake: Amino Acid Requirements: Vitamins: Minerals: Other Nutrients and Additives: Poultry convert feed into food products quickly, efficiently, and with relatively low environmental impact compared with other livestock. 102. Animal. (2019) 8:118. doi: 10.3390/pathogens8030118. doi: 10.2298/AVB0803179M, 104. (41) called for increasing diagnostic facilities, diagnostic kits, trained physicians, and a sufficient number of hospital beds. (2013) 8:47480. These diseases are candidates for the application of biotechnology tools for the selection of disease resistance (54, 55). Unify and regulate global animal and poultry movement and trade of domestic and wild animals. (2013) 97:75472. Introduction. In addition, a competent authority should sample the flocks. Poult Sci. Assure product quality and imposed new programs to prevent zoonotic disease transmission. Persoons D, Van Hoorebeke S, Hermans K, Butaye P, De Kruif A, Haeseb-Rouck F, et al. However, microorganisms can be detected in the gut of killed birds. (2003) 61:25667. Fish oil supplementation has no adverse properties on the immune task of broilers (63). Animal farming around the world has become one, interconnected unit. (2012) 135:8590. (2019) 9:547. doi: 10.3390/ani9080547, 127. Domestic poultry and SARS coronavirus, Southern China. doi: 10.1080/00071660701671336, 66. Front Vet Sci. Ann Anim Sci. Both eggs and meat are strategic goods; thus, extended the investment in the poultry industry in Saudi Arabia is a promising agricultural sector. Sci. Hafez HM. Bee pollen and propolis as dietary supplements for rabbit: effect on reproductive performance of does and on immunological response of does and their offspring. In a future study, improvements in laboratory diagnosis will offer sensitive, fast, and precise disease diagnosis, and early mediations will be a reality (4547). Effect of phylogenetic diversity of velogenic Newcastle disease virus challenge on virus shedding post homologous and heterologous DNA vaccination in chickens. Folia Biol (Krakow). The most frequent tolerant patterns of Enterococcus faecalis were lincomycin, tetracycline, and gentamicin in all poultry production systems. Attia YA, Abd El-Hamid AE, Zeweil HS, Qota EM, Bovera F, Monastra M, et al. doi: 10.22319/rmcp.v8i1.4309, 60. (2019) 149:112232. doi: 10.3923/ijp.2017.907.915, 105. In May 2023, Frontiers adopted a new reporting platform to be Counter 5 compliant, in line with industry standards. When used correctly for 100% of the feed, trays provide much greater control over consumption rates and other benefits. This phenomenon has adversely affected the health, welfare, and performance of animals (31). Europ Poult Sci. Various infectious pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, contribute to infectious diseases in poultry and can be transmitted and subsequently spread in farms via horizontal and/or vertical transmission (5). Treatment protocols for zoonotic disease and their associated secondary infections, as well as alternative protocols, should be developed after the COVID-19 pandemic. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 80. Europ Poult Sci. (2020) 10:727. doi: 10.3390/ani10040727, 109. Farquharson C, Jefferies D. Chondrocytes and longitudinal bone growth: the development of tibial dyschondroplasia. Birds have several mechanisms to protect from infections and to maintain good health. Sajadifar S, Miranzedah H, Moazeni M. Effect of zinc on humoral and cell-mediated immunity of broilers vaccinated against coccidiosis. The severity of clinical signs, duration of disease, and rate of mortality and morbidity are highly variable and affected by virulence, type, and pathogenicity of the infectious agent(s), meteorological conditions, and environmental aspects such as high stocking density, poor management, ventilation, and condition of litter, high levels of toxic gasses such as ammonia and carbon dioxide, hygiene, coexisting diseases, and secondary infections. 53. Hence, current research seeking an alternative to inorganic Zn minerals salts such as organic and nanoscale minerals. A vaccine is considered as one of the most helpful immune interventions due to its ability to encourage safeguard against infectious diseases through the targeted direction of the immune system (52). Recently, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) were isolated from healthy turkeys in Egypt by Moawad et al. A recent trend in mineral nutrition has focused on replacing inorganic minerals with organic sources and nanoparticles, particularly green nanoparticles obtained from plant tissues, on improving mineral utilization, animal immunity, and decrease environmental pollution (109). The external Campylobacter load per bird is elevated during different slaughter processes, including transport, de-feathering, and evisceration (8). EFSA. After feeding ad libitum in the rearing period, mean body weights of 1. In the future, a few authorized pharmaceuticals and veterinary products will be available to treat poultry as food-producing animals (53). Prevalence of types of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in turkey flocks and personnel attending the animals. Both innate and adaptive immunity work synergistically to offer animals good protection to harmful microorganisms, parasites, and other invaders. Vet Res. There may also be an increase in the use of antibiotics in feed-producing animals during the COVID-19 pandemic to improve animal immunity and health and increase animal farming profits. 2nd ed. Attia YA, Abd El-Hamid EA, Abedalla AA, Berika MA, Al-Harthi MA, Kucuk O, et al. The consumer desire for high-quality poultry products will robustly affect production practices. Establish a program to investigate and control of infectious animal diseases. Sajadifar et al. In the humid tropics, highly productive poultry have higher feed consumption and heat production due to excessive metabolic activity. Attia YA, Bakhashwain AA, Bertu Nehal K. Thyme oil (Thyme vulgaris L.) as a natural growth promoter for broiler chickens reared under hot climate. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. An excess of certain nutrients can harm the immunity and health of animals (5759). A recent review demonstrated that the nutritive nanoparticles enhance performance in livestock and poultry and immunity due to increased digestive effectiveness (110). Sizova E, Miroshnikov S, Lebedev S, Usha B, Shabun S. Use of nanoscale metals in poultry diet as a mineral feed additive. Ames, IA: Blackwell (2008). However, the nutritional requirements of essential fatty acids need further exploration. Available online at: https://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/health/articles/current-regulations-produc-tion-processing-t1774/165-p0.htm (Accessed May 12, 2019). Nutrition. Hence, the main way for Campylobacter transfer in chickens seems to be the environmental horizontal transmission. These educational programs can be summarized in the following: 1. 91. Immunity is the key factor in the protection of animals and disease control. doi: 10.1637/10135-031912-Reg.1, 25. (13, 124126) concluded that vitamins E and C have a great effect on productive performance and immune response of animals exposed to heat stress. Enhancing innate immunity is the frontline of disease prevention and control. SARS-CoV-2 is an enveloped virus that is highly infectious, even though it is easily destroyed by soap and common disinfectants. Poult Sci. Attia YA, Ellakany HF, Abd El-Hamid AE, Bovera F, Ghazaly SA. doi: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2017.07.014, 85. The effects of tomato powder supplementation on performance and lipid peroxidation in quail. Rev Sci Tech Off. While live foods for aquarium fish are loaded with nutrients, there are some challenges and drawbacks to consider. Guchhait P, Haldar C. Time and reproductive phase dependent effects of exogenous melatonin on the pineal gland and ovary of a nocturnal bird, the Indian spotted owlet, Athene brama. Chrystal PV, Moss AF, Khoddami A, Naranjo VD, Selle PH, Liu SY. Isolated enterococci were examined for the incidence of the vancomycin tolerance genesvanA, vanB (B1/B2/B3), and vanC (C1/C2/C3)using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Attia YA, Al-Harthi MA, Abo El-Maaty HM. Biosecurity, hygiene, immunity are front lines of defense, perhaps the greatest lesson we learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. (2017) 8:1121. 52. Furthermore, genetic selection has been most implicated as the major cause of skeletal diseases, which currently draw considerable concentration as a reason for disquiet from an animal welfare point of view. Fourth, products and contents are improved via quality and food chain control systems and poultry and poultry-product traceability. El-Adawy H, Hotzel H, Dpre S, Tomaso H, Neubauer H, Hafez HM. Adequate protocols of hygienic control should be used and strictly implemented in all phases of production. Copyright 2020 Hafez and Attia. Spa type distribution in Staphylococcus aureus originating from pigs, cattle and poultry. Lebeer S, Bron PA, Marco ML, Van Pijkeren JP, O'Connell Motherway M, Hill C, et al. El-Adawy H, Ahmed MFE, Hotzel H, Tomaso H, Tenhagen BA, Hartung J, et al. (2008) 58:17989. WebWATER Water is often overlooked, but it is one of the most important nutrients. It has many functions, including nucleic acid synthesis and repair, metabolism, immune response, redox homeostasis, and apoptosis, and it plays a vital role in the host-pathogen relationship, and now is recommended for treatment of COVID-19 patients. (2019) 7:476. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms7100476, 20. However, very limited research has been performed with the COVID-19 virus in poultry. Publisher Grupo Ass Biomedia (2016). Attia YA, Hamed RS, Bovera F, Abd El-Hamid AE, Al-Harthi MA, Shahba HA. Available online at: http://fenix.fao.org/faostat/internal/en/#home, (accessed May 28, 2020). 140. In addition, the n-6:n-3 ratio impacts egg, meat, and milk quality and animal immunity (79). Mastellone V, Bovera F, Musco N, Panettieri N, Piccolo G, Scandurra A, et al. Role of photoperiod and pineal gland in T cell dependent humoral immune reactivity in the Siberian hamsters. (2009) 8:2130. doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2017.02.018, 50. Advances and Challenges in Poultry Science. Eradication, elimination, and/or control of foodborne and zoonotic pathogens present a major challenge to the poultry industry. 2. Zn inhibits the activity of RNA polymerase in a number of viruses, including coronavirus, hepatitis C virus, arterivirus, and rhinovirus (112114). Van den Berg T, Lambrecht B, Marche S, Steensels M, Van Borm, et al. 99. Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives is concluded that previously used fish feed ingredients such as fishmeal and fish oil are not the most The high rate of productivity of poultry results in relatively high nutrient needs. In general, the recommended doses of trace minerals to boost immunity are ~50100% higher than the levels needed for productive performance. 178/2002 of The European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002 which laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety (EC). Poult Sci. These education programs can positively impacted the industry, improved human wellbeing, and limited the loss in humans and animals (54). Forms of Feed. The first line of infectious disease control is to prevent the introduction of disease and to prevent further spread via strict biosecurity, establishing and maintaining immunity, and vaccination. The application of technologies in vaccination production, such as subunits, reverse genetics, recombinants, and nucleic acid vaccines, can considerably decrease the cost of vaccination, guarantee high efficacy, and permit rapid and easy intercession to face the fixed mutation of the microbiota. 49. Front Vet Sci. However, genetic selection occurs with improved practices of husbandry, disease control, and nutrition manipulation (29). Hafez HM, Hauck R. Main Diseases in Poultry Farming-Bacterial Infection. The advantageous impact of immunobiotics on immunity and subsequent health of an animal is directly regulated by indirect a direct interrelationship (9193). Attia YA, Abd El Hamid AE, Ismaiel AM, El-Naggar A. Attia YA, Hassan RA, Tag El-Din AE, Abou-Shehema BM. Place the feeders within 3 meters of water. (23) examined the occurrence of LA-MRSA in turkeys' farms and farmer who reared growing turkeys. (2020). Cambridge, MA: CABI (2008). J Pineal Res. 13. In addition, avian influenza and Newcastle disease antibody titers were sustainably increased due to enriching a broiler diet with 1.5% coconut fat. WebHistorically feeding of wet mashes to poultry has not been recommended for use in large-scale commercial poultry production, on the basis that it does not offer any nutritional In general, the expected outcomes are improve basic knowledge and scientific background related to biosecurity and hygiene of poultry framing; refresh and update relevant individuals with recent information on poultry farming, processing plants, hatcheries and feed mill; cross-react; and improve the work environment and safety. Strategically, the COVID-19 pandemic has taught us that research must continue and be reoriented to discover new vaccines. Figure 2: Effect of protein source on broiler performance. Adams BYC, Vahl HA, Veldman A. Interaction between nutrition and Eimeria acervulina infection in broiler chickens: diet compositions that improve fat digestion during Eimeria acervulina infection. Implementing key measures will ensure that workers' financial stability and well-being is prioritized. They were imposing strict regulations for Animal biosecurity and hygienic condition and Zoonotic diseases. Increasing selection pressures also hinder animals' freedom (30). Considering the precautionary principle and experiences that have been gained in some European countries, antibiotics have been banned as growth-promoting for food-producing animals since January 2006. Carenzi C, Verga M. Animal welfare: review of the scientific concept and definition. None of them revealed clinical signs suggestive of a MRSA infection. (2017) 13:90715. Shortages in the poultry industry include poor husbandry and management practices, improper nutrition and infrastructure, and above all different deadly emerging diseases that can cause enormous economic damages (55). Nutrition is a key factor in immunity, disease control, and prevention. On 12 of the farms, 22 of the 59 (37.3%) individuals' tests were shown MRSA. For one thing, live We acknowledge support by the Open Access Publication Initiative of Freie Universitt Berlin, Germany. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-079X.1999.tb00622.x. Any stress-causing agent can hinder poultry disease resistance, increase the susceptibility of chickens to infections, and decrease the effectiveness of vaccinations. In the humid tropics, After a transition period, the law has been enforced since January 1, 2005 (11) to provide a framework for surveilling feeds and the health, welfare, and hygiene of animals. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. Specifically, there could be a marked increase in the cost of feeding for animal production and elevated product prices. There has been a strong reduction in specific Salmonella serovars, including Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella typhimurium, due to these orders (7). 14. (2015) 94:28317. Feeding Initially, for the first four weeks he fed them with commercially available starter feed, after which he switched to locally available feed materials. Front Vet Sci. Barberi C, Campana S, De Pasquale C, Rabbani Khorasgani M, Ferlazzo G, Bonaccorsi I. T cell polarizing properties of probiotic bacteria. Mol Nutr Food Res. (2015) 13:3991. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2015.3991. doi: 10.1017/S004393391200058X, 129. (2015) 79, 113. 9. Improve the innate animal immunity as the frontline of disease prevention and control. Governments should establish new regulations for animal health care, trade, and movements of domestic and wild animals and provide adequate research funds for these activities to establish a strategic plan to ensure a continuous supply of animal protein. The bursa of Fabricius is divided into follicles; it is occupied with B lymphocytes that produce specific antibodies, which circulate in the bloodstream. The data suggest that decreasing dietary crude protein with the same energy and essential amino acids is adequate to ensure adequate immune function in broilers (7073). Attia YA, Abd El-Hamid AE, Ellakany HF, Bovera F, Al-Harthi MA, Ghazaly SA. 51. July 7, 2021 by admin Pros and Cons of Poultry Farming. Hidayat et al. Animals. Protein and essential amino acids are vitally important for growth and antibody formation and a well-functioning immune system (7175). What We Know About Avian Coronavirus Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) in Poultry - and How That Knowledge Relates to the Virus Causing COVID-19 in Humans. The poultry droppings comprises 2% nitrogen, 1.25% 10. For a discussion of the food value and processing of poultry products, see egg and poultry (2019) 6:473. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00473, 95. Husbandry must be oriented to meet the standard rearing conditions to support optimal poultry immunity, health, and performance and to avoid disease transmission. WebIntegrated fish farming with poultry is generally cultured as the poultry manure is a very efficient fertilizer for fish ponds. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25707, 63. Values with different superscripts were significantly different at P < 0.05. (2007) 43:415. The approach involves both risk management after risk measurement of assessments, including all key participants, specifically EU Member countries, the European Commission, the European Parliament, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), and economic operators. Due to the increasing demand for animal protein, this will also lead to an increase in feed ingredients such as fishmeal and fish oil, which are available in limited quantities, and it is essential to develop feed that is sustainable and based on non-food resources [ 11 ]. Poultry farming can be done on a large-scale commercial basis or as a small-scale organic farm. (2012) 76:23945. Br Poult Sci. (2007) 122:36672 doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.01.027, 21. Poult Sci. In addition, contaminants and residues, novel food, additives, flavorings, packaging, and irradiation of foods are covered by this law. Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.) Basic poultry husbandry, behavior, and welfare. Additionally, enhancement of poultry management, husbandry, nutrition, and rearing will help to sustain their comfort and welfare. (2020) Available online at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/237597/leading-10-countries-worldwide-in-poultry-meat-production-in-2007/. On the other hand, increasing n-6 fatty acid consumption increases the incidence of obesity, coronary artery diseases, and type 2 diabetes (63, 64). Zn2+ inhibits coronavirus and arterivirus RNA polymerase activity in vitro and zinc ionophores block the replication of these viruses in cell culture. (2009) 8:74150. Attia YA, Abdalah AA, Zeweil HS, Bovera F, Tag El-Din AA, Araft MA. 54. Available online at: https://www.intechopen.com/books/application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science/genetics-of-disease-resistance-in-chicken, 56. (2016) 8:39. doi: 10.1186/s13099-016-0121-5, 27. With regard to the poultry industry, great attention has been given to restrict avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), which is part of the genus Gammacoronavirus and not transmitted to humans (37, 43, 44). Poult Sci. doi: 10.1051/vetres:2006055. Of the isolated, 44 (57.9%) were tolerant of amoxicillin, 69 (90.8%) to streptomycin, 61 (80.2%) to erythromycin, and 58 (76.4%) to neomycin. Previous studies have indicated that the relationship between the pressures of genetic selection and other meteorological and husbandry factors may negatively affect animals' health status, with an emphasis on the rate of growth and bone and blood supply essential for the development of supporting structures (31). In this respect, the progress in the probiotic as immunomodulatory interventions shows the prospect to improve animals' tolerance to bacterial diseases such as salmonella (89), help detoxify aflatoxin (87, 88), and decrease the hazards of nitrate (90). 141. Recently, Moawad et al. Microorganisms. The researchers found that replacing soy or fish meal in poultry feed with fly meal (up to 42 percent in the starter diet and 55 percent in the finisher diet) did not have any adverse effects on weight gain, body composition, or flavor of chickens. As time progresses, the cost of inflation naturally The effects of restricted feeding in the rearing and laying periods on the performance of three White Leghorn cockerel by Australorp pullet crossbred strains and one White Leghorn strain cross were studied in two experiments. 8. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) bacteria have also been observed in poultry. In addition, Rahman et al. Schlottau K, Rissmann M, Graaf A, Schn J, Sehl J, Wylezich C, et al. Furthermore, the discovery or production of novel antibiotics does not meet the occurrence of antimicrobial tolerance in bacteria (15). However, it can effectively enhance the blood biochemical traits and the activity of the antioxidative enzyme at a 60% replacement level. In addition, the general public must be aware of SARS-CoV-2 to control the outbreak or break the infection cycle. Diversity in genetic material, the immune reaction by the host animal, and the transcriptome can be employed to identify resistant genes for disease prevention. Determination of antimicrobial sensitivities of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from commercial turkey farms in Germany. Enterococci bearing van genes were also identified in dust samples (17). Directive 2003/99/EC of the European Parliament of the Council of 17 November 2003 on the monitoring of zoonoses zoonotic agents amending Council Decision 90/424/EEC repealing Council Directive 92/117/EEC(OJ L 325 12.12.2003, p. 131. (2020) 7:389. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00389. Attia YA, Bovera F, Abd-El-Hamid EA, Tag EL-Din AE, Al-Harthi M A, Nizza A, et al. Hafez HM. However, the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus is not associated with poultry or poultry products. Basic Principles of Integrated Fish Farming: Integrated fish farming is based on the concept that there is no waste, and waste is only a misplaced resource which can become a valuable material for another product (FAO, 1977). In a laying flock, a shortage of water (2020) 6:510. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00436, 74. doi: 10.1637/10928-090314-RegR, 19. Int J Endocrinol. (2015) 168:33742. Evaluation of the immunomodulatory activities of the probiotic strain Lactobacillus fermentum UCO-979C. Effect of inorganic or organic copper additions on reproductive performance, lipid metabolism and morphology of organs of dual-purpose breeding hens. There are lots of controversies accorded to the feeding of chicken dropping to fish by fish farmers. Attia YA, El-Naggar Asmaa Sh, Abou-Shehema BM, Abdella AA. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.024, 130. Received: 02 May 2020; Accepted: 06 July 2020; Published: 26 August 2020. EFSA J. 1. Acta Veterinaria (Beograd). J Med Virol. The success of any program for disease regulation depends on hygiene, applying the proper farm sanitation, vaccination programs, and appropriate education programs for poultry farmers (2). Effect of supplementation with trimethylglycine (betaine) and/or vitamins on semen quality, fertility, antioxidant status, DNA repair and welfare of roosters exposed to chronic heat stress. Underwood EJ, Suttle NF. (2001) 65:1306. (2017) Enhancing tolerance of broiler chickens to heat stress by supplementation with vitamin E, vitamin C and/or probiotics. Se is an essential constituent of the 24 selenoproteins in the avian genome. This transmission can lead to infections with mycoplasma, aspergillus, E. coli, salmonella, pseudomonas, streptococci, staphylococci, encephalomyelitis, and hepatitis. The commercial fishing industry has many positives that impact people throughout the world. 107. (2013) 13:17794. Kaushik N, Subramani C, Anang S, Muthumohan R, Shalimar Nayak B, et al. The high cost of feed has been the major hindrance to a hindrance to the growth, sustainability, profitability, and expansion of poultry production. The methodology is sustained by effective and timely risk communication actions. Front. Biosecurity and hygiene in poultry farming, and immunity and disease control, 2. Fish farming helps ensure that such species that may see increased demand remain affordable. The cfr and optrA genes were recorded in 11 (35.5%) and 12 (38.7%) of the 31 linezolid-resistant isolates. Czech J Anim Sci. 15. (2017) 4:1297658. doi: 10.1155/2017/1297658, 119. 44. Archiv fr Geflgelkunde. Hafez HM. Traber MG, Atkinson J. Vitamin E antioxidant and nothing more. Develop veterinary vaccines and production centers for local pathogenic strains; 5. Department of Poultry Science, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pakistan, University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States. Poultry immunity, health, and production are several factors that challenge the future growth of the poultry industry. It should be prospective and incorporate emerging zoonotic diseases that may require new vaccines for their control. The four steps of risk assessment are: (1) documentations of a hazard; (2) assessment of exposure; (3) hazard characterization; and (4) risk characterization (10). Chicken and poultry feed comes in three forms: crumbles, pellets, and mash. Increased feeding cost and raw ingredient prices as well their availability will negatively influence the growth of the industry and consumers' purchasing power, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic. p. 11735. (2019) 4:1407. Therefore, it is vital to know the correlation between the pressures of genetic selection and other aspects that may influence the status of animal health and disease tolerance. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600240, 94. Nutritional immunomodulation is defined as the impact of additives on certain functions of the immune system and/or decrease hazards of infection by bacterial, viral, protozoa, and fungus. Selected vitamins and trace elements support immune function by strengthening epithelial barriers and cellular and humoral immune response. WebAdvantages 4. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) risk assessment definitions encompass the scientific assessment of potential adverse health and known negative effects. Rather, it will also incorporate the interconnection of the animals' health, welfare, and immunity. Animals. (2006) 26:26574. Nutrition and the immune system. The production of human vaccines is essential to save lives and ensure the wellbeing and, hence, much more important than the production of a vaccine for farm animals. doi: 10.1016/j.copbio.2017.10.007, 93. It is widely recognized that beneficial microbiotaprobiotics, lactic acid bacteria, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, with its cell wall constituents glucan and MOSand organic acids are necessary for immunity and gut health. Europ Poult Sci. Multidrug-resistance to three or more groups of antimicrobial substances fluctuated from 3.9 to 40.8%. Evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and deaths. (2020) Evaluation of heavy metal content in feed, litter, meat, meat products, liver, and table eggs of chickens. (105) reviewed the existing evidence on the effect of Zn form and concentration on immunity and found that the Zn requirement for immunity is 90.63 and 106 mg/kg diet, which is higher than that needed for growth and feed conversion ratio of broilers (93.37 and 75.72 mg/kg diet, respectively). Campylobacter spp. Czech J Anim. In addition, immune memory is recognized as a part of the lymphocytes that respond to the initial infection are preserved and may later again be activated in response to a second attack by the same microorganism. Several investigations have shown that low ambient temperatures can reduce the feed intake and subsequently compromise immune function (141, 142). Wheat. Vaccination has had and will continue to have a major influence on the development and strategic growth of the industry, allowing economic and effective control and eradication of diseases (44). Vet World. Avian Pathol. Some birds may be selected that show reduced cardiopulmonary capacity compared to traditional lines and, consequently, impaired heart and lung function. Web1. Anim Reprod Sci. Avian flu, infectious bronchitis, Newcastle disease, Gumboro, avian metapneumovirus, Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, E. coli, and mycoplasma are the most common poultry diseases around the world. The literature has demonstrated that the impact of oil supplementation on performance, immunity, and antioxidants depends on the criteria of response. These concepts are vital parts of threat analysis, which comprise risk management, as well as evaluating, selecting, and applying various courses of action. 29. (1985) 43:11322. Effects of 289 inclusion of Se-enriched yeast in the diet of laying hens on performance, eggshell quality, and Se tissue deposition. Gopi M, Pearlin B, Kumar RD, Shanmathy M, Prabakar G. Role of nanoparticles in animal and poultry nutrition: modes of action and applications in formulating feed additives and food processing. These additives substantially contribute to several mechanisms for disease prevention and control of pathogen growth (87). Poultry production does not seem to be at risk due to the global spread of SARS-CoV (37). (2020) 10:973. doi: 10.3390/ani10060973, 69. The fish feed alternative must be high quality and high nutritional value (omega-3 fatty acids, high protein content, adequate amino acids, digestibility, and taste), as well as Kitazawa H, Villena J, Alvarez S. Probiotics: Immunobiotics and Immunogenics. are the poultry bacteria more often responsible for human foodborne diseases. Hilliar M, Hargreave G, Girish CK, Barekatain R, Wu SB, Swick RA. , and/or control of pathogen growth ( 87 ) and farming profits as feed additives the effectiveness of vaccinations way... Mfe, Hotzel H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano,... 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